INTRODUCTION: Acinetobacter baumannii strains are common nosocomial pathogens worldwide. Our study aimed to determine the antibiotic resistance rate, blaOXA and ISAba1 genes, metallo-beta-lactamases production, biofilm formation, and clonal classification of A. baumannii isolated from clinical samples in Çorum Erol Olçok Training and Research Hospital, Türkiye. It was also aimed to describe the plasmid profile and analyze the association between genes, clones, and plasmids.
METHODS: Ninety-eight A. baumannii isolated between 2018 and 2019 were included in the study. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were determined with Vitek 2. The reference broth microdilution method was used to assess colistin susceptibility. These results were compared with those obtained from the Vitek 2. A multiplex polymerase chain reaction detected blaOXA-23, blaOXA-24/40, blaOXA-51, and blaOXA-58 genes. The ISAba1/ blaOXA-23 and ISAba1/ blaOXA-51 genes were analyzed separately via PCR. Genotypes and subtypes of the isolates were determined with the Repetitive Extragenic Palindromic PCR method. International clones were investigated by multiplex PCR. The plasmid profiles of the isolates were analyzed using alkaline lysis. Phenotypic methods were preferred for determining biofilm formation and metallo-beta-lactamase production.
RESULTS: A. baumannii was identified in deep tracheal aspirate samples (32%), wounds (21%), blood (17%), sputum (15%), urine (9%), tissue biopsy samples (4%), pleural fluid (1%), and cerebrospinal fluid (1%). A. baumannii was detected in patient samples from the intensive care unit at a frequency of 58%. Of these isolates, 13% were susceptible to all antibiotics tested, while 45% were found to be extensively drug resistant. The ISAba1/blaOXA-23, ISab1/blaOXA-51, blaOXA-23, and blaOXA-51 genes were found in 98.8% of the carbapenem-resistant isolates. BlaOXA-24/40 and blaOXA-58 genes were not detected. The epidemiological distribution of the isolates revealed seven genotypes and 21 subtypes. Genotype D was found, and international clone 2 was classified in the hospital epidemic isolates. It was shown that 73.4% of isolates carried plasmids, which were not identical among isolates. Different biofilm levels were measured in 88% of the isolates. However, more vigorous biofilm formation was detected in isolates sensitive to ceftazidime, imipenem, meropenem, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and ciprofloxacin.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The blaOXA-23 genotype was associated with carbapenem resistance in A. baumannii isolates. Genotype D and international clone 2 were defined as endemic isolates in our hospital, and no similarity was found between susceptible and resistant isolates in terms of plasmid profiles, genotypes, and clonality. Stronger biofilm formation was detected in isolates susceptible to ceftazidime, imipenem, meropenem, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and ciprofloxacin, and more comprehensive studies are needed on the relationship between biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance.

INTRODUCTION: In this study, we aimed to characterize the MLSB phenotype and genotypic resistance genes of MRSA and MSSA isolates from Baskent University Hospital, and resistance rates of MSSA and MRSA isolates were compared.

METHODS: The study included 50 MSSA and 50 MRSA isolates collected between 2016 and 2022 from the hospital of Baskent University located in Ankara and Adana. First, S. aureus isolates were confirmed by catalase and coagulase tests, and the MRSA isolates were confirmed by cefoxitin disc diffusion test. To determine the MLSB resistance, isolates were tested for clindamycin and erythromycin resistance using the disk diffusion test(D-test). According to D-test, resistance phenotypes were detected and resistant phenotypes were screened for resistance genes using PCR. PCR amplification was made using primers specific for ermA,ermB,ermC, and msrA genes.
RESULTS: Among 50 MRSA isolates, 25 (50%) were resistant to erythromycin, susceptible to clindamycin, and showed D-zone positivity, indicating an inducible resistance phenotype (iMLSB). The two (4%) isolates were resistant to clindamycin and erythromycin without the D zone indicating constitutive cMLSB phenotype. Twenty-two(44%) isolates were susceptible to clindamycin and erythromycin with D-zone negative indicating S phenotype. Only one isolate(2%) was susceptible to clindamycin and has erythromycin resistance with absence of D-zone indicating MSB phenotype. While 8(16%) of the fifty MSSA isolates were found to have the D-zone positive iMLSB phenotype resistant to erythromycin, two(4%) isolates were found to have the cMLSB phenotype resistant to both antibiotics without the D-zone. There were 40(80%) isolates that were susceptible to clindamycin and erythromycin without D zone. Resistance genes were examined in a total of 38 samples, including 28 MRSA and 10 MSSA samples. Among the MLSB resistance genes, ermC was found positive in 25 MRSA(89.3%) and 4 MSSA(40%) samples. The second most commonly detected gene was ermA, which was detected in 4(40%) MSSA isolates but not in any MRSA isolates.The msrA gene was confirmed positive in one MRSA sample with the MSB phenotype. All samples were negative for the presence of the ermB gene.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In conclusion, iMLSB phenotype was the most common resistance pattern, consistent with previous studies conducted in Turkey, and was more frequently detected among MRSA isolates in this study, which included samples from Ankara and Adana. Among resistance genes for MLSB resistance, the most frequent gene was ermC in line with the literature. ermA positivity was very less and ermB was not detected. Therefore, we can say that the ermC gene is more common in this region.

INTRODUCTION: Campylobacteriosis is one of the most common types of gastroenteritis worldwide. In recent years, it has been reported that Campylobacter species isolated from humans and animals have increased antibiotic resistance against macrolides and especially fluoroquinolones. This study aimed to determine the frequency of Campylobacter species in patients with acute gastroenteritis and to investigate the antibiotic susceptibility profile and various virulence factors in the isolated strains.
METHODS: Stool samples from 401 patients at Mersin University Hospital were included in the study between October 2018 and April 2019. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Campylobacter species was performed by using the disk diffusion method according to the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) guidelines. Identification of Campylobacter species and various virulence factors were studied with conventional Polimeraz Chain Reaction(PCR).
RESULTS: Campylobacter spp. was isolated in 44 (10.9%) of the 401 stool samples included in the study. The PCR method revealed that 36 isolates (81.8%) corresponded to C. jejuni, while six isolates (13.6%) were identified as C. coli. Two isolates could not be identified to the species level by the PCR method and were reported as Campylobacter spp. All 44 Campylobacter isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin. Tetracycline resistance was found to be 97.7% (n=43) and erythromycin resistance was 9.1% (n=4) in the isolated Campylobacter strains. cadF and cdtABC positivity were detected in 90.9% (n=40) and 54.5% (n=24) of the Campylobacter isolates, respectively.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Our results have yielded valuable data on the epidemiology of Campylobacter in our geographical area, highlighting the importance of including Campylobacter culture as a standard component of routine stool culture tests. Macrolide antibiotics have been reaffirmed as the primary treatment option for Campylobacter species. Furthermore, it was suggested that rational antibiotic usage and preventive measures against antibiotic resistance should be implemented.

INTRODUCTION: The first case of Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) confirmed by laboratory results was detected in Kütahya province in 2006. This study aimed to retrospectively examine the epidemiological, clinical and laboratory characteristics of patients who were followed up with the diagnosis of CCHF since January 1, 2009.

METHODS: Records of patients whose diagnosis of CCHF was confirmed by Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) and ELISA between January 1, 2009 and December 31, 2020 were examined retrospectively.

RESULTS: A total of 28 patients were included in the study. 28 (64%) of the patients were women and the average age was 48,1±14,3 years. 23 of the patients (82%) lived in rural areas, and 93% were engaged in farming and animal husbandry. All applications appeared to be in the spring and summer months. The average time to onset of complaints after tick removal was 6,0±1,8 days, and the time to hospital admission after the onset of complaints was 3,1±1,64 days. The most common complaints were fever and fatigue with 96,4%. 82% of the patients had a history of contact with animals, and the rate of patients reporting a history of tick bite was 86,0%. On physical examination, 96,4% of the patients had fever, 14,3% had gum bleeding, and 17,9% had hematuria. Elevated AST-ALT and thrombocytopenia were detected in all patients, and leukopenia was detected in 93,0%. LDH elevation was detected in 93,0% of the patients, CK elevation was detected in 75,0%, and anemia was present in 35,7%. It was observed that ribavirin treatment was started in 28,6% of the patients, and death occurred in one patient (3,6%).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: CCHF is an endemic disease that maintains its importance in our country and is reported from almost every region. In our region, it also shows seasonal characteristics and is seen sporadically. CCHF should be considered in the differential diagnosis in patients with leukopenia and thrombocytopenia who live in rural areas or have a history of traveling to rural areas in spring and summer and present with complaints of fever and fatigue.

INTRODUCTION: Negative situations experienced by healthcare professionals, such as the increased workload, the anxiety of being infected and infecting the individuals around them, have led to negative emotions such as fear and stress. In this study, it was aimed to evaluate the relationship between the fear of Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) and emotional eating behaviors of healthcare professionals.
METHODS: This study was carried out between 01 June - 31 July 2022, with the participation of 200 volunteers, aged 19-64, work in a state hospital, Turkey. Questionnaire consisting of questions to define demographic information, health status, fear of COVID-19 scale, emotional eater questionnaire (EEQ) was applied to individuals and anthropometric measurements of individuals were taken.

RESULTS: 62.0 % (n=132) of the participants were diagnosed with COVID-19. Fear of COVID-19 scale scores of participants who did not have COVID-19 were found to be statistically significantly higher than those diagnosed with COVID-19 (p<0.001). Fear of COVID-19 scale and EEQ scores of female healthcare professionals were higher than males (p=0.018; p=0.003). EEQ scores of those diagnosed with COVID-19 and those who did not were found to be similar (p>0.05). A low level, positive and significant relationship was found between the fear of COVID-19 scale and EEQ scores of healthcare professionals who diagnosed with COVID-19 (r=0.288; p<0.001). A moderate level, positive and significant relationship was found between the fear of COVID-19 scale and EEQ scores of healthcare professionals who did not diagnose with COVID-19 (r=0.316; p=0.005). No significant correlation was found between the fear of COVID-19 scale scores and age and BMI (respectively r=0.083; p=0.244; r=0.136; p=0.054). A positive and significant correlation was found between the EEQ scores and body mass index (BMI) values of all healthcare professionals participating in the study (r=0.159; p=0.024).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: A positive and significant relationship was found between the fear of COVID-19 and EEQ scores of all healthcare professionals participating in the study. The fear of COVID-19 scale scores of healthcare professionals who diagnosed with COVID-19 are higher than those of healthcare professionals who did not.

INTRODUCTION: Infections due to Candida species are an important cause of mortality and morbidity in patients hospitalized in intensive care units. Although C. albicans is the most frequently encountered Candida species in Intensive Care Units, the frequency of other Candida species has recently increased. In this study, we aimed to contribute to epidemiologic data and empirical antifungal treatment selection by retrospectively analyzing the distribution of Candida species isolated from various clinical specimens of patients hospitalized in the Intensive Care Units of our hospital.
METHODS: In the study, Candida isolated from various culture samples of patients hospitalized in the Intensive Care Units of our hospital between 01 May 2021 - 30 August 2023 were examined. Blood samples were incubated in an automated blood culture device (BACTEC 9120, USA) for 5 days. Blood culture samples with positive signals and other clinical specimens were inoculated on sheep blood agar and EMB agar media. The yeast isolates grown on the media were identified using the Phoenix automated identification system (BD, Sparks, USA).
RESULTS: A total of 464 Candida growths were identified. Among these, 49.1% were C. albicans and 50.9% were non-albicans Candida. Of the non-albicans Candida, 31.5% were C. tropicalis, 10.3% were C. parapsiosis and 9.1% were C. glabrata. While C. albicans was the main candida isolated from urine cultures (45.9%), C. albicans was isolated from 57.7% of BAL cultures and 43.3% of blood cultures. C. albicans was isolated from all wound swab cultures. C. albicans was isolated in 51.6% of female patients and 45.5% of male patients; C. tropicalis was isolated in 27.8% of female patients and 36.9% of male patients.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: While C. albicans was the most common cause of Candida infections encountered in Intensive Care Units, the total number of nonalbicans species was higher than C. albicans. The most frequently isolated nonalbicans Candida species was C. tropicalis. We think that determining the species distribution of Candida infections in patients hospitalized in intensive care units will contribute to both the planning of empirical antifungal treatment and the reduction of mortality and morbidity with the selected treatment protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Brucellosis is a zoonotic infection that is transmitted from infected animals to humans through the consumption of food products (such as unpasteurized dairy products) or direct contact with tissues or body fluids. It is the most common zoonosis worldwide and is a majör public health problem in many developing countries. Knowledge of brucellosis seropositivity and geographic distribution is of great importance for the control of the disease. Thus, it was aimed to examine the Rose-Bengal test (RBT) results and serum tube agglutination (STA) test titers from the serum samples sent to the microbiology laboratory with a preliminary diagnosis of brucellosis and to investigate the seropositivity of brucellosis in our region.
METHODS: Between 1 January 2020 and 31 December 2023, 13.588 serum samples sent to the medical microbiology laboratory with preliminary diagnosis of brucellosis from various outpatient clinics or services of Ağrı Training and Research Hospital were included. The results of these samples were obtained from laboratory information management system retrospectively. RBT antigen (THSK, Türkiye) and STA standardized suspension of B. abortus S99 dead strain (THSK, Türkiye) were used in the study.

RESULTS: A total of 13.588 blood samples with a preliminary diagnosis of brucellosis included in our study. RBT seropositivity was found to be 12.3% (n: 1676). STA was applied to the sample of patients who were RBT positive. In serum agglutination test, brucellosis seropositivity was 4.2% (n: 575) at <1/160 titer and 5.5% (n: 750) at ≥1/160 titer. According to investigated by years, it has been determined that the rate of seropositivity decreased in 2023 years.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In conclusion, a high rate of brucellosis seropositivity was detected in our region. Brucellosis remains an important public health problem in the Eastern Anatolia region. Serological test results contribute to the development of regional epidemiological data and to increase measures. It is important to inform people about brucellosis infection and transmission. Clinicians in our hospital should consider brucellosis in the differential diagnosis.

INTRODUCTION: Borderline ovarian tumor (BOT), known as ovarian tumor with low malignant potential, constitutes 10-20% of all ovarian malignancies. It is freguently possible to diagnose BOT before surgery, it is often diagnosed by frozen examination during surgery or by histological examination of the ovarian tissue after the operation. In this study, we aimed to retrospectively evaluate the accuracy rate of frozen examination results of BOT in a single center.


METHODS: All final pathology result diagnoses of patients who received BOT between 01.01.2003 and 01.07.2019 were analyzed. Frozen examination results; they were categorized as benign, BOT, at least BOT. The age of the patients, menopausal status, tumor type, tumor bilaterality, tumor size, tumor stage, preoperative cancer antigen-125 (CA-125) U/ml, preoperative carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9) U/ml levels were recorded. The accuracy rate and effect on risk factors of each frozen section diagnosis were analyzed. As surgical procedures, unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, total hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, peritoneal cytology, multiple peritoneal biopsies, appendectomy, infracolic omentectomy and/or lymph node dissection (sampling/systematic) were performed according to the patient’s age and fertility request. Conservative surgery was preferred for patients who wanted fertility and were in the young age group.
RESULTS: The accuracy value of frozen diagnosis of all patients was found to be 93.7%. The accuracy rate of frozen diagnosis results was 98.1% for serous BOT and 83.7% for mucinous BOT. Mucinous histology (p<0.001), preoperative CA 19-9 U/ml level (p=0.002) and bilaterality of the tumor (p<0.001) were found to be risk factors for determining the patients’ frozen examination results and permanent pathology results to be incompatible. In our study, individuals with low CA 19-9 levels were found to be 6.06 times more likely to have an incompatible pathology than those with high CA 19-9 levels.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The accurate diagnosis of BOT intraoperative frozen examination is very important in determining the extent of the surgical procedure. In our study, the diagnostic accuracy of frozen examination results is low in patients with bilateral tumors, mucinous histology, and high preoperative CA 19-9 levels.

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, health tourism has been increasing its importance in terms of both the development of national economies and improving the quality of health systems. Health tourism is summarized as the visit of people who demand treatment to different regions in order to access high-cost treatments outside the region where they live, often at lower prices. Health tourism is included in the literature not only in terms of access to lower-priced services, but also as a form of tourism that occurs when individuals who demand the service want to access quality services. This study aims to evaluate the publications on health tourism, which consumers apply in line with their needs, from different perspectives, to reveal the diffusion and relationships of existing studies and to examine the hygiene effect.
METHODS: The data used in this study were obtained from studies published only in the English language by filtering the studies in “Scopus” and “WoS” (Web of Science) databases between 2020-2024. In the retrieval of the data, restrictions were made as “health tourism” in titles, abstracts and keywords and “hygiene” in all fields. In the bibliometric analysis part, co-author analysis, keywords analysis, country citation analysis, author citation analysis, source citation analysis, and bibliographic matching analysis were performed, respectively, using the Vosviewer program. The geographical distribution of studies on health tourism was visualized using the R program and Biblioshiny plugin.

RESULTS: As a result of the review, it was determined that the studies searched in the WoS database consisted of 3512 research articles, 338 reviews, 217 early access publications, and 179 conference proceedings, while the publications in the Scopus database were 303 research articles, 55 reviews, 60 book chapters, and 24 conference proceedings. It has been observed that the number of studies conducted in the last five years has increased significantly, especially after the Covid-19 pandemic. In addition, the interconnections of studies on health tourism were evaluated from different perspectives. The countries, authors, and relationship tables that publish the most on the subject were revealed.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: It has been observed that studies on health tourism continue to increase every year. It has been determined that the research on health tourism is unevenly distributed on the basis of countries and that the leading countries in this field constitute a significant part of the total studies. The importance of hygiene concept in health tourism has been shown with the help of analysis results, tables and graphs.

INTRODUCTION: The permanent preparation of helminths and arthropods is of great importance for both research and educational purposes. The simplicity and applicability of this process ensures long-term preservation of the preparations. Strong adhesives such as glycerin gel, entellan and Canada balsam are widely used to increase the quality and durability of permanent preparations. However, these traditional mounting media have various limitations such as yellowing over time, brittleness, moisture sensitivity and long hardening times. The aim of this study is to evaluate the quality, durability and effectiveness of the helminths and arthropods embedding technique in epoxy resin and to determine its advantages compared to traditional methods.

METHODS: In the laboratory environment, species such as leeches (Hirudo sp.), Fasciola sp., Taenia sp., Enterobius vermicularis; arthropods such as hard ticks (Ixodidae), Reduviidae, Anopheles sp. were made permanent using epoxy resin. The samples were first subjected to appropriate fixation and dehydration processes, then carefully positioned and embedded in epoxy resin. The applied method was optimized to preserve the morphological integrity and three-dimensional structure of the parasites.

RESULTS: Epoxy resin has offered significant advantages such as high optical transparency, superior mechanical strength, the ability to create three-dimensional preparations and the capacity to preserve fine morphological details of parasites for a long time. It was observed that the preparations prepared in the study remained stable for a long time without deteriorating their physical structures and losing their optical properties. Compared to traditional methods, epoxy resin was found to provide a structure that is more resistant to environmental factors and does not deform over time.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Epoxy resin has been evaluated as a fast and practical technique that provides high mounting quality for both helminths and arthropods. Its ability to maintain optical clarity, mechanical durability, and structural integrity over time makes this method a promising alternative for long-term specimen preservation and microscopic examination. The use of epoxy resin for educational and research purposes offers a valuable contribution to parasitology laboratories.

INTRODUCTION: This study aims to evaluate and compare Sanger sequencing and third-generation 16S rRNA sequencing methods in terms of their ability to accurately identify various bacteria under identical primer sets and specific PCR conditions using four American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) strains. In this context, the capacity of each method was assessed to accurately and comprehensively identify bacteria from pure cultures, where the genus and species of the organisms are confirmed and known.

METHODS: In the study, identical primer sets and PCR conditions were used to enable a comparison between the two sequencing methods. While eight primers targeting the 16S rRNA region were used in the Sanger sequencing method, only two primers were used for the same region in the third-generation 16S rRNA sequencing method. The raw data were analyzed using GeneStudio software for Sanger sequencing and an appropriate bioinformatics workflow for the third-generation 16S rRNAsequencing method.

RESULTS: The analysis demonstrated that third-generation 16S rRNA sequencing outperforms Sanger sequencing in achieving comprehensive and efficient profiling of the full 16S rRNA region. Third-generation 16S sequencing reduces primer requirements, minimizes sequence loss in primer-binding regions, and significantly decreases processing time from days to hours, enabling rapid, high-throughput sequencing in a matter of minutes. In contrast, Sanger sequencing provides high single-read accuracy but falls short in terms of speed and efficiency, making it less suitable for broader applications.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: This study highlights third-generation 16S sequencing as a faster, more comprehensive, and more effective option for high-resolution microbial investigations. While Sanger sequencing remains a valuable tool for certain scenarios due to its high single-read accuracy, its speed and depth limitations render it inadequate for broader applications. These findings emphasize the advantages of third-generation 16S sequencing in providing scientists with a reliable and thorough approach to characterizing microorganisms for various applications.

INTRODUCTION: Regarding the unfavorable properties of propofol we investigated the effects of fospropofol, a water-soluble prodrug of propofol, on human internal mammary artery (IMA) rings, as an alternative. Since desired vascular tonus is crucial during cardiac surgery the effect of agents used for induction and/or sedation is important. To clarify the endothelium dependent and calcium and potassium channel modulated mechanism of action of these drugs will enable us to control the patients during and after surgery in intensive care period.

METHODS: The arterial rings obtained from the remenants of the IMA used in 19 patients underwent coronary artery bypass grafting were mounted in the organ baths and stabilized under resting tension of 0.5-1 g in physiological Krebs solution at 37°C (gassed with 95%O2 and 5% CO2, pH=7.4). The basal and KCl (120mM)-stimulated vascular tonus and the effect of cumulative propofol (n=8) and fospropofol (n=11) (10-7-10-5 M) was recorded. In another group of IMA segments same protocol of fospropofol was applied to endothel-intact and denuded vessels to investigate the role of endothelium. Then to understand the involvement of L-type Ca+2 and BKCa K+ channels, the vessels were preincubated by nifedipine (n=8) or iberiotoxin (n=7) followed by the KCl stimulation and fospropofol doses. All the arterial responses were recorded real-time by Biopac data acquisition and analysis system. The results were normalized by tissue weight and given as the percentage of KCl-induced contraction.
RESULTS: Fospropofol caused less and later vasodilation compared to propofol (p<0.05). The role of endothelial layer in the vasodilatory role of fospropofol was shown by attenuated effect in endothel-denuded rings. Blocking BKCa potassium channels with iberiotoxin increased contraction and blunted the vasodilatory effect of fospropofol.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In conclusion, fospropofol appears to be a better alternative to propofol with potentially reduced risk of vasodilation-induced hypotension and maintaining vascular tone. further studies are required to validate these findings and to better understand its underlying mechanisms.

Traditional and Complementary Medicine (T&CM) practices include many medical practices used as complementary to modern medicine as well as in the treatment of various diseases with cultural and historical roots and in the maintenance of health. These practices have been used irregularly by many societies outside of classical medicine for centuries. However, the safety of these practices brings serious responsibilities, especially in terms of hygiene and infection control. With the trend towards T&CM practices, it has become necessary for healthcare personnel to have better knowledge of T&CM methods. For this purpose, it is important to receive training that includes the purpose of the application, its positive or negative effects, methods of use, indications and contraindications. The training content to be given to healthcare personnel who will perform T&CM applications should also include healthcare-related infections, transmission routes, protection measures, patient safety, healthcare personnel health and immunization principles. It should also be noted that the environments where T&CM applications are carried out should be cleaned and disinfected regularly and when necessary. In this review, specific hygiene and infection risks encountered in common T&CM practices such as acupuncture, cupping, leech therapy and mesotherapy are examined. In particular, it is vital to use sterile needles and disposable materials for each patient, especially in practices that disrupt skin integrity, such as acupuncture. Similarly, in leech therapy, where biological materials are used, leeches should be disposable and disposed of properly after treatment. In cupping therapy and mesotherapy, it is essential that the skin contact surfaces are sterile and the instruments used are properly disinfected. This review also emphasises the importance of regular training of T&CM practitioners for infection control and the importance of cleaning and disinfection of the application environments. In terms of patient safety, adherence to strict hygiene protocols and taking concrete steps towards infection control in T&CM applications play a critical role for the effectiveness and safety of these treatment modalities.